Pooled relative risks (95% confidence intervals) of lung cancer for quintiles of dietary carotenoids
| Carotenoid . | Quintile 1 . | Quintile 2 . | Quintile 3 . | Quintile 4 . | Quintile 5 . | P . | . | . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | . | . | . | . | . | Test for trend . | Test for between study heterogeneity for quintile 5 . | Test for between study heterogeneity due to sex for quintile 5 . | ||
| α-Carotene | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.78 (0.70–0.88) | 0.73 (0.65–0.82) | 0.70 (0.61–0.80) | 0.61 (0.53–0.71) | <0.001 | 0.15 | 0.06 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.91 (0.80–1.05) | 0.94 (0.84–1.06) | 0.95 (0.84–1.07) | 0.93 (0.82–1.06) | 0.47 | 0.39 | 0.74 | ||
| β-Carotene | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.81 (0.70–0.94) | 0.77 (0.67–0.90) | 0.69 (0.59–0.80) | 0.65 (0.58–0.73) | <0.001 | 0.68 | 0.73 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.82–1.16) | 1.00 (0.84–1.20) | 0.94 (0.82–1.08) | 0.98 (0.87–1.11) | 0.47 | 0.85 | 0.47 | ||
| β-Cryptoxanthin | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.71 (0.64–0.80) | 0.59 (0.51–0.69) | 0.56 (0.48–0.64) | 0.50 (0.43–0.57) | <0.001 | 0.27 | 0.26 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.80–1.00) | 0.83 (0.71–0.96) | 0.86 (0.76–0.97) | 0.76 (0.67–0.86) | <0.001 | 0.95 | 0.60 | ||
| Lutein/Zeaxanthin | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.86 (0.77–0.96) | 0.76 (0.67–0.88) | 0.78 (0.69–0.87) | 0.74 (0.66–0.83) | 0.001 | 0.57 | 0.16 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.87–1.10) | 0.92 (0.79–1.06) | 0.97 (0.86–1.10) | 0.91 (0.81–1.03) | 0.15 | 0.81 | 0.25 | ||
| Lycopene | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.78 (0.69–0.87) | 0.74 (0.66–0.83) | 0.74 (0.66–0.83) | 0.77 (0.68–0.88) | 0.03 | 0.25 | 0.55 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.86 (0.75–0.97) | 0.85 (0.74–0.99) | 0.88 (0.77–1.01) | 0.91 (0.78–1.07) | 0.42 | 0.11 | 0.92 | ||
| Carotenoid . | Quintile 1 . | Quintile 2 . | Quintile 3 . | Quintile 4 . | Quintile 5 . | P . | . | . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | . | . | . | . | . | Test for trend . | Test for between study heterogeneity for quintile 5 . | Test for between study heterogeneity due to sex for quintile 5 . | ||
| α-Carotene | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.78 (0.70–0.88) | 0.73 (0.65–0.82) | 0.70 (0.61–0.80) | 0.61 (0.53–0.71) | <0.001 | 0.15 | 0.06 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.91 (0.80–1.05) | 0.94 (0.84–1.06) | 0.95 (0.84–1.07) | 0.93 (0.82–1.06) | 0.47 | 0.39 | 0.74 | ||
| β-Carotene | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.81 (0.70–0.94) | 0.77 (0.67–0.90) | 0.69 (0.59–0.80) | 0.65 (0.58–0.73) | <0.001 | 0.68 | 0.73 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.82–1.16) | 1.00 (0.84–1.20) | 0.94 (0.82–1.08) | 0.98 (0.87–1.11) | 0.47 | 0.85 | 0.47 | ||
| β-Cryptoxanthin | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.71 (0.64–0.80) | 0.59 (0.51–0.69) | 0.56 (0.48–0.64) | 0.50 (0.43–0.57) | <0.001 | 0.27 | 0.26 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.80–1.00) | 0.83 (0.71–0.96) | 0.86 (0.76–0.97) | 0.76 (0.67–0.86) | <0.001 | 0.95 | 0.60 | ||
| Lutein/Zeaxanthin | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.86 (0.77–0.96) | 0.76 (0.67–0.88) | 0.78 (0.69–0.87) | 0.74 (0.66–0.83) | 0.001 | 0.57 | 0.16 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.87–1.10) | 0.92 (0.79–1.06) | 0.97 (0.86–1.10) | 0.91 (0.81–1.03) | 0.15 | 0.81 | 0.25 | ||
| Lycopene | ||||||||||
| Age-adjusted | 1.00 | 0.78 (0.69–0.87) | 0.74 (0.66–0.83) | 0.74 (0.66–0.83) | 0.77 (0.68–0.88) | 0.03 | 0.25 | 0.55 | ||
| Multivariatea | 1.00 | 0.86 (0.75–0.97) | 0.85 (0.74–0.99) | 0.88 (0.77–1.01) | 0.91 (0.78–1.07) | 0.42 | 0.11 | 0.92 | ||
Adjusted for education (<high school graduate, high school graduate, and >high school graduate), body mass index (<23, 23 to <25, 25 to <30, and ≥30 kg/m2), alcohol consumption (0, >0 to <5, 5 to <15, 15 to <30, and ≥30 g/day), energy (continuous), smoking status (current, past, and never smokers), smoking duration for current smokers (continuous), smoking duration for past smokers (continuous), and amount smoked for current smokers (continuous). Because the α-Tocopherol, β-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study only includes current smokers, in this study we adjusted for smoking as smoking duration (continuous) and amount smoked (continuous).