Studies that assessed raw vegetable intake and risk of cancer
| Author country . | Cancer site . | OR (95% CI) . | Vegetable . | Comparison of quantity intake . | Types of raw/cooked vegetables . | No. subjects . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Takezaki et al. (11) Japan | Oral-male | 0.5 (0.4–0.7) | Raw | ≥3 vs <3 times/wk | 189 cases, 9,858 controls | |
| Oral-female | 0.8 (0.5–1.3) | 77 cases, 9,858 controls | ||||
| Rajkumar et al. (12) India | Oral | 0.47 (0.31–0.73) | Raw | ≥3 vs <1 serving/wk | 591 controls, 582 cases | |
| 0.44 (0.28–0.69) | Total | ≥14 vs <7 servings/wk | ||||
| Brown et al. (13) Puerto Rico* | Oral and pharyngeal | −FH†: 0.5 (0.3–1.0) | Raw | Frequent vs infrequent | 59 cases, 28 controls | |
| +FH†: 0.15 (0.04–0.5) | 155 cases, 194 controls | |||||
| Sanchez et al. (14) Spain | Oral and pharyngeal | 0.53 (0.35–0.80) | Raw | ≥7 vs ≤2 servings/wk | 375 cases, 375 controls | |
| 0.54 (0.34–0.87) | Total | ≥8 vs ≤3 servings/wk | ||||
| De Stefani et al. (15) Uruguay | Oral and pharyngeal | 0.9 (0.5–1.5) | Raw | Carrot, lettuce, tomato | 33 cases, 393 controls | |
| 0.8 (0.4–1.4) | Total | Carrot, lettuce, tomato, onion, Swiss chard, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, winter squash, red pepper | ||||
| Laryngeal | 0.7 (0.4–1.1) | Raw | 34 cases, 393 controls | |||
| 0.9 (0.6–1.6) | Total | |||||
| Esophageal | 0.5 (0.4–0.8) | Raw | 66 cases, 393 controls | |||
| 0.7 (0.5–0.9) | Total | |||||
| Uzcudun et al. (16) Spain | Pharyngeal | 0.33 (0.11–0.63) | Raw | 3–4 days/wk vs 1–3 days/mo | 232 cases, 232 controls | |
| Takezaki et al. (17) Japan | Hypopharyngeal-male | 0.2 (0.1–0.4) | Raw | Everyday vs occasionally or less | 62 cases, 11,936 controls | |
| Esophageal-male | 0.6 (0.4–0.7) | 284 cases, 11,936 controls | ||||
| Brown et al. (21) United States | Esophageal-adenocarcinoma-male | 0.4‡ | Raw | 162 cases, 685 controls | ||
| 0.6§ | Total | Green string beans or lima beans, red beets, broccoli, cooked cabbage, coleslaw, carrot, cauliflower, southern greens (collard and mustard greens or kale), okra, green peas, black-eyed peas or cow peas, etc. | ||||
| Brown et al. (22) United States | Esophageal-male-White | 0.4‡ | Raw | Coleslaw, tomato, tossed salad | 114 cases, 681 controls | |
| 0.4‡ | Total | Same as Brown et al. (21) | ||||
| Esophageal-male-Black | 0.4‡ | Raw | 219 cases, 557 controls | |||
| 1.0 | Total | |||||
| Gao et al. (23) China | Esophageal | 0.07 (0.03–0.19) | Raw | Frequently vs almost never | 81 cases, 234 controls | |
| Gastric | 0.07 (0.04–0.13) | 153 cases, 234 controls | ||||
| Takezaki et al. (24) China | Esophageal | 0.30 (0.15–0.61) | Raw | Frequently vs almost never | 199 cases, 333 controls | |
| 0.81 (0.46–1.44) | Total | Everyday vs <1 time/wk | ||||
| Gastric | 0.63 (0.29–1.38) | Raw | Frequently vs almost never | 187 cases, 333 controls | ||
| 0.50 (0.29–0.87) | Total | Everyday vs <1 time/wk | ||||
| Harrison et al. (30) United States | Gastric-intestinal type | 0.6 (0.4–1.1) | Raw | 60 cases, 132 controls | ||
| 0.8 (0.5–1.3) | Total | |||||
| Gastric-diffuse type | 0.6 (0.3–1.2) | Raw | 31 cases, 132 controls | |||
| 0.7 (0.4–1.2) | Total | |||||
| Galanis et al. (31) Hawaii (Japanese residents)∥ | Gastric | 0.8 (0.5–1.2) | Raw | ≥7 vs ≤6 times/wk | 108 cases, 11,907 cohort | |
| Huang et al. (32) Japan | Gastric | 0.80 (0.67–0.95) | Raw | Every day vs <3 times/wk | 887 cases, 28,619 controls | |
| Ito et al. (33) Japan | Gastric-female | 0.50 (0.36–0.71) | Raw | Everyday vs almost never | 508 cases, 36,490 controls | |
| Lee et al. (34) Korea | Early gastric | 0.2 (0.1–0.5) | Raw | >6 vs <4 servings/wk | Head lettuce, lettuce, cabbage, cucumber, Chinese cabbage, pepper, carrot, onion, Perilla leaves | 69 cases, 199 controls |
| Ghadirian et al. (35) Canada (Francophone community)¶ | Pancreatic | 0.28 (0.10–0.75) | Raw | Very often vs never | 179 cases, 239 controls | |
| Takezaki et al. (47) Japan | Lung-adenocarcinoma-male | 1.01 (0.62–1.65) | Raw | Everyday vs almost never | 748 male cases, 2,964 male controls, 297 female cases, 1,189 female controls | |
| Lung-adenocarcinoma-female | 0.84 (0.45–1.55) | |||||
| Lung-squamous and small cell-male | 0.8 (0.51–1.25) | |||||
| Lung-squamous and small cell-female | 1.01 (0.28–3.58) | |||||
| Wright et al. (48) Missouri | Lung-female | 0.74 (0.62–0.88) | Raw | Tomato, spinach, coleslaw, green salad, carrot, carrot juice, olives, cucumber, jalapeno pepper, celery, red/green pepper, avocado, pickles | 587 cases, 624 controls | |
| 0.67 (0.55–0.82) | Total | Raw vegetables (above), string beans (green or yellow snap) peas, black-eyed peas, corn, cabbage/sauerkraut, winter squash, salsa/red chili sauce, broccoli/cauliflower/Brussels sprouts, etc. | ||||
| Le Marchand et al. (5) Hawaii∥ | Prostate | 1.1 (0.7–1.7) | Raw | ≥302 vs ≤82 g/wk | 198 cohort | |
| Appleby et al. (6) United Kingdom∥ | All malignant neoplasms | 1.03 (0.83–1.23) | Raw | Daily vs less than daily | “Raw salad” | 181 cases, 10,771 cohort |
| Author country . | Cancer site . | OR (95% CI) . | Vegetable . | Comparison of quantity intake . | Types of raw/cooked vegetables . | No. subjects . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Takezaki et al. (11) Japan | Oral-male | 0.5 (0.4–0.7) | Raw | ≥3 vs <3 times/wk | 189 cases, 9,858 controls | |
| Oral-female | 0.8 (0.5–1.3) | 77 cases, 9,858 controls | ||||
| Rajkumar et al. (12) India | Oral | 0.47 (0.31–0.73) | Raw | ≥3 vs <1 serving/wk | 591 controls, 582 cases | |
| 0.44 (0.28–0.69) | Total | ≥14 vs <7 servings/wk | ||||
| Brown et al. (13) Puerto Rico* | Oral and pharyngeal | −FH†: 0.5 (0.3–1.0) | Raw | Frequent vs infrequent | 59 cases, 28 controls | |
| +FH†: 0.15 (0.04–0.5) | 155 cases, 194 controls | |||||
| Sanchez et al. (14) Spain | Oral and pharyngeal | 0.53 (0.35–0.80) | Raw | ≥7 vs ≤2 servings/wk | 375 cases, 375 controls | |
| 0.54 (0.34–0.87) | Total | ≥8 vs ≤3 servings/wk | ||||
| De Stefani et al. (15) Uruguay | Oral and pharyngeal | 0.9 (0.5–1.5) | Raw | Carrot, lettuce, tomato | 33 cases, 393 controls | |
| 0.8 (0.4–1.4) | Total | Carrot, lettuce, tomato, onion, Swiss chard, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, winter squash, red pepper | ||||
| Laryngeal | 0.7 (0.4–1.1) | Raw | 34 cases, 393 controls | |||
| 0.9 (0.6–1.6) | Total | |||||
| Esophageal | 0.5 (0.4–0.8) | Raw | 66 cases, 393 controls | |||
| 0.7 (0.5–0.9) | Total | |||||
| Uzcudun et al. (16) Spain | Pharyngeal | 0.33 (0.11–0.63) | Raw | 3–4 days/wk vs 1–3 days/mo | 232 cases, 232 controls | |
| Takezaki et al. (17) Japan | Hypopharyngeal-male | 0.2 (0.1–0.4) | Raw | Everyday vs occasionally or less | 62 cases, 11,936 controls | |
| Esophageal-male | 0.6 (0.4–0.7) | 284 cases, 11,936 controls | ||||
| Brown et al. (21) United States | Esophageal-adenocarcinoma-male | 0.4‡ | Raw | 162 cases, 685 controls | ||
| 0.6§ | Total | Green string beans or lima beans, red beets, broccoli, cooked cabbage, coleslaw, carrot, cauliflower, southern greens (collard and mustard greens or kale), okra, green peas, black-eyed peas or cow peas, etc. | ||||
| Brown et al. (22) United States | Esophageal-male-White | 0.4‡ | Raw | Coleslaw, tomato, tossed salad | 114 cases, 681 controls | |
| 0.4‡ | Total | Same as Brown et al. (21) | ||||
| Esophageal-male-Black | 0.4‡ | Raw | 219 cases, 557 controls | |||
| 1.0 | Total | |||||
| Gao et al. (23) China | Esophageal | 0.07 (0.03–0.19) | Raw | Frequently vs almost never | 81 cases, 234 controls | |
| Gastric | 0.07 (0.04–0.13) | 153 cases, 234 controls | ||||
| Takezaki et al. (24) China | Esophageal | 0.30 (0.15–0.61) | Raw | Frequently vs almost never | 199 cases, 333 controls | |
| 0.81 (0.46–1.44) | Total | Everyday vs <1 time/wk | ||||
| Gastric | 0.63 (0.29–1.38) | Raw | Frequently vs almost never | 187 cases, 333 controls | ||
| 0.50 (0.29–0.87) | Total | Everyday vs <1 time/wk | ||||
| Harrison et al. (30) United States | Gastric-intestinal type | 0.6 (0.4–1.1) | Raw | 60 cases, 132 controls | ||
| 0.8 (0.5–1.3) | Total | |||||
| Gastric-diffuse type | 0.6 (0.3–1.2) | Raw | 31 cases, 132 controls | |||
| 0.7 (0.4–1.2) | Total | |||||
| Galanis et al. (31) Hawaii (Japanese residents)∥ | Gastric | 0.8 (0.5–1.2) | Raw | ≥7 vs ≤6 times/wk | 108 cases, 11,907 cohort | |
| Huang et al. (32) Japan | Gastric | 0.80 (0.67–0.95) | Raw | Every day vs <3 times/wk | 887 cases, 28,619 controls | |
| Ito et al. (33) Japan | Gastric-female | 0.50 (0.36–0.71) | Raw | Everyday vs almost never | 508 cases, 36,490 controls | |
| Lee et al. (34) Korea | Early gastric | 0.2 (0.1–0.5) | Raw | >6 vs <4 servings/wk | Head lettuce, lettuce, cabbage, cucumber, Chinese cabbage, pepper, carrot, onion, Perilla leaves | 69 cases, 199 controls |
| Ghadirian et al. (35) Canada (Francophone community)¶ | Pancreatic | 0.28 (0.10–0.75) | Raw | Very often vs never | 179 cases, 239 controls | |
| Takezaki et al. (47) Japan | Lung-adenocarcinoma-male | 1.01 (0.62–1.65) | Raw | Everyday vs almost never | 748 male cases, 2,964 male controls, 297 female cases, 1,189 female controls | |
| Lung-adenocarcinoma-female | 0.84 (0.45–1.55) | |||||
| Lung-squamous and small cell-male | 0.8 (0.51–1.25) | |||||
| Lung-squamous and small cell-female | 1.01 (0.28–3.58) | |||||
| Wright et al. (48) Missouri | Lung-female | 0.74 (0.62–0.88) | Raw | Tomato, spinach, coleslaw, green salad, carrot, carrot juice, olives, cucumber, jalapeno pepper, celery, red/green pepper, avocado, pickles | 587 cases, 624 controls | |
| 0.67 (0.55–0.82) | Total | Raw vegetables (above), string beans (green or yellow snap) peas, black-eyed peas, corn, cabbage/sauerkraut, winter squash, salsa/red chili sauce, broccoli/cauliflower/Brussels sprouts, etc. | ||||
| Le Marchand et al. (5) Hawaii∥ | Prostate | 1.1 (0.7–1.7) | Raw | ≥302 vs ≤82 g/wk | 198 cohort | |
| Appleby et al. (6) United Kingdom∥ | All malignant neoplasms | 1.03 (0.83–1.23) | Raw | Daily vs less than daily | “Raw salad” | 181 cases, 10,771 cohort |
Calculated ORs for raw fruit and vegetables combined.
−FH, family history of aerodigestive cancer; +FH, no family history of cancer. Referent group was −FH.
95% CI does not include 1.0.
95% CI crosses 1.0.
RRs and 95% CIs calculated in these studies.
Calculated ORs for raw fruit and vegetables combined.