Studies that compared raw and cooked vegetable intake and cancer risk
| Author country . | Cancer site . | OR (95% CI) . | Vegetable . | Comparison of quantity of intake . | Raw/cooked vegetables . | No. subjects . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Levi et al. (7) Switzerland | Oral and pharyngeal | 0.3 (0.16–0.58) | Raw | >8.5 vs ≤5.0 servings/wk | 156 cases, 284 controls | |
| 0.14 (0.07–0.19) | Cooked | >8.6 vs ≤5.2 servings/wk | ||||
| Franceschi et al. (8) Italy | Oral and pharyngeal | 0.4 (0.3–0.6) | Raw | >14.1 vs ≤5 servings/wk | 598 cases, 1,491 controls | |
| 0.5 (0.3–0.7) | Cooked | >4.5 vs ≤1.5 servings/wk | ||||
| De Stephani et al. (10) Uruguay | Laryngeal-male | 0.29 (0.15–0.56) | Raw | >31 vs ≤8.6 g/d | Carrot, lettuce, tomato | 148 cases, 444 controls |
| 0.96 (0.5–1.84) | Cooked | >87.7 vs ≤35.5 g/d | Onion, Swiss chard, spinach, winter squash, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper | |||
| Bosetti et al. (9) Italy and Switzerland | Laryngeal | 0.22 (0.14–0.34) | Raw | >13.9 vs ≤5.4 servings/wk | 527 cases, 1,297 controls | |
| 0.32 (0.21–0.49) | Cooked | >5.1 vs ≤1.6 servings/wk | ||||
| Bosetti et al. (18) northern Italy | Esophageal | 0.32 (0.19–0.55) | Raw | >12.6 vs ≤3.9 servings/wk | 304 cases, 743 controls | |
| 0.79 (0.47–1.31) | Cooked | >4.3 vs ≤1.4 servings/wk | ||||
| De Stefani et al. (19) Uruguay | Esophageal | 0.52 (0.27–0.99) | Raw | ≥34.4 vs ≤8 g/d | 111 cases, 444 controls | |
| 0.55 (0.29–1.03) | Cooked | ≥95.5 vs ≤36.1 g/d | ||||
| Levi et al. (20) Switzerland | Esophageal | 0.14 (0.1–0.4) | Raw | >9.5 vs ≤5.5 servings/wk | 101 cases, 327 controls | |
| 0.19 (0.1–0.3) | Cooked | >8.0 vs ≤5.3 servings/wk | ||||
| Cornee et al. (25) France | Gastric | 0.41 (0.19–0.88) | Raw | Tomato, lettuce, radish, cucumber, celery | 92 cases, 128 controls | |
| 1.06 (0.53–2.13) | Cooked | Swiss chard, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, courgette, beetroot, green beans, peas, eggplant, leek, mushrooms | ||||
| Botterweck et al. (26) the Netherlands* | Gastric | 0.81 (0.55–1.19) | Raw | Median intake 74 vs 8 g/d | 310 cases, 3,346 controls | |
| 0.79 (0.55–1.14) | Cooked | Median intake 213 vs 79 g/d | ||||
| De Stefani et al. (27) Uruguay | Gastric | 0.52 (0.31–0.86) | Raw | ≥29.5 vs ≤9.0 g/d | Carrot, lettuce, tomato | 160 cases, 320 controls |
| 0.93 (0.57–1.51) | Cooked | ≥90.0 vs ≤53.0 g/d | Onion, garlic, Swiss chard, spinach, winter squash, beetroot, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper | |||
| Kim et al. (28) Korea | Gastric | 0.55 (0.28–1.09) | Raw | 136 cases, 136 controls | ||
| 0.98 (0.50–1.90) | Cooked | |||||
| Centonze et al. (36) southern Italy | Colorectal | 0.67 (0.35–1.29) | Raw | ≥76 vs ≤46 g/d | Salad, celery, tomato, carrot | 119 cases, 119 controls |
| 0.59 (0.31–1.12) | Cooked | ≥267 vs ≤183 g/d | Vegetable soup, spinach, beet, endive, eggplant, artichoke, green pepper, zucchini, cauliflower, peas, kidney beans, runner beans | |||
| Franceschi et al. (38) Italy | Colon | 0.7 (0.7–0.8) | Raw | >12 vs ≤4.0 servings/wk | 1,225 cases, 4,154 controls | |
| 0.7 (0.6–0.8) | Cooked | >7.3 vs ≤2.9 servings/wk | ||||
| Rectal and rectosigmoid | 0.8 (0.7–1.0) | Raw | >12 vs ≤4.0 servings/wk | 728 cases, 4,154 controls | ||
| 0.7 (0.7–0.8) | Cooked | >7.3 vs ≤2.9 servings/wk | ||||
| Boutron-Ruault et al. (39) France | Colorectal | 1.0 (0.5–1.8) | Raw | 171 cases, 202 controls | ||
| 0.8 (0.4–1.5) | Cooked | |||||
| Levi et al. (40) Switzerland | Colorectal | 0.49 (0.3–0.78) | Raw | >9 vs ≤5.5 servings/wk | 223 cases, 291 controls | |
| 0.41 (0.26–0.66) | Cooked | >8.75 vs ≤5.25 servings/wk | ||||
| Voorips et al. (41) the Netherlands* | Colon-male | 0.79 (0.54–1.16) | Raw | Median intake∥ 73 vs 7 g/d | Endive, carrot, tomato, lettuce | 313 cases, 1,456 subcohort |
| 0.94 (0.64–1.39) | Cooked | Median intake 234 vs 79 g/d | Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, endive, beetroot, string beans, broad beans, kale, carrot, sweet pepper, sauerkraut, rhubarb, mushroom, gherkin | |||
| Colon-female | 1.02 (0.67–1.54) | Raw | Median intake 76 vs 10 g/d | 274 cases, 1,497 subcohort | ||
| 0.75 (0.49–1.14) | Cooked | Median intake 229 vs 80 g/d | ||||
| Rectal-male | 0.93 (0.58–1.47) | Raw | Median intake 73 vs 7 g/d | 201 cases, 1,456 subcohort | ||
| 0.96 (0.61–1.51) | Cooked | Median intake 234 vs 79 g/d | ||||
| Rectal-female | 1.24 (0.67–2.26) | Raw | Median intake 76 vs 10 g/d | 122 cases, 1,497 subcohort | ||
| 1.34 (0.74–2.42) | Cooked | Median intake 229 vs 80 g/d | ||||
| Deneo-Pellegrini et al. (42) Uruguay | Colorectal | 0.8 (0.6–1.0) | Raw | Carrot, tomato, lettuce | 484 cases, 1,452 controls | |
| 0.9 (0.7–1.2) | Cooked | Onion, Swiss chard, spinach, potato, sweet potato, winter squash, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper, kidney bean, lentil | ||||
| Mayne et al. (44) New York† | Lung-male (nonsmokers) | 0.41‡ | Raw | 212 cases, 212 controls | ||
| 1.02§ | Cooked | |||||
| Lung-female (nonsmokers) | 0.40‡ | Raw | 201 cases, 201 controls | |||
| 0.69§ | Cooked | |||||
| Voorips et al. (46) the Netherlands* | Lung | 0.7 (0.6–1.0) | Raw | Median intake 74 vs 8 g/d | Endive, carrot, lettuce, tomato | 1,010 cases, 2,953 subcohort |
| 0.8 (0.6–1.1) | Cooked | Median intake 231 vs 79 g/d | Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, endive, beetroot, string beans, broad beans, kale, carrot, sweet pepper, sauerkraut, rhubarb, mushroom, gherkin | |||
| De Stefani et al. (45) Uruguay | Lung-male | 0.97 (0.64–1.45) | Raw | Carrot, lettuce, tomato | 200 cases, 600 controls | |
| 0.50 (0.32–0.76) | Cooked | Onion, Swiss chard, spinach, winter squash, potato, sweet potato, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper, kidney bean, lentil | ||||
| Franceschi et al. (49) Italy | Breast | 0.73 (0.6–0.88) | Raw | >12.5 vs ≤4.9 servings/wk | Lettuce-like salad, carrot, tomato, mixed salad | 2,569 cases, 2,588 controls |
| 0.96 (0.79–1.16) | Cooked | >7.5 vs ≤3.1 servings/wk | Pulses, carrot, onion, artichoke, Cruciferae, spinach, zucchini, pepper, eggplant, savory pie, vegetable soup | |||
| Ronco et al. (50) Uruguay | Breast | 0.51 (0.33–0.79) | Raw | >6.5 vs <2.7 servings/wk | 400 cases, 405 controls | |
| 0.58 (0.36–0.94) | Cooked | >9.8 vs <6.3 servings/wk | ||||
| Adzersen et al. (51) Germany | Breast | 0.51 (0.31–0.84) | Raw | >65.0 vs <23.7 g/d | Mixed salads, fresh herbs, green leafy salads, tomatoes, cucumbers, red/green peppers, carrots, radishes, cabbage, sprouts | |
| 1.26 (0.77–2.06) | Cooked | >45.5 vs <18.3 g/d | Pulses, other cooked vegetables not specified | |||
| Bosetti et al. (54) Italy | Ovarian | 0.47 (0.34–0.64) | Raw | >11.5 vs ≤6.5 servings/wk | 1,031 cases, 2,411 controls | |
| 0.65 (0.48–0.87) | Cooked | >5.0 vs ≤1.8 servings/wk | ||||
| McCann et al. (53) New York | Endometrial | 0.6 (0.3–0.9) | Raw | >120 vs ≤54 times/mo | 232 cases, 639 controls | |
| 0.5 (0.3–0.8) | Cooked | >111 vs ≤61 times/mo | ||||
| Schuurman et al. (55) the Netherlands* | Prostate | 0.96 (0.68–1.32) | Raw | Median intake 73 vs 7 g/d | 704 cases, 1,688 controls | |
| 0.85 (0.61–1.19) | Cooked | Median intake 234 vs 79 g/d | ||||
| Balbi et al. (56) Uruguay | Bladder | 1.15 (0.74–1.80) | Raw | Mean intake, cases 27.9 g/d, controls 26.6 g/d | Carrot, tomato, lettuce | 144 cases, 576 controls |
| 0.53 (0.32–0.87) | Cooked | Cases 68.7 g/d, controls 58.9 g/d | Onion, Swiss chard, spinach, winter squash, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper | |||
| Zeegers et al. (57) the Netherlands* | Urothelial | 0.94 (0.69–1.27) | Raw | ≥193 vs <99 g/d | 619 cases, 3,346 subcohort | |
| 1.01 (0.75–1.37) | Cooked | ≥58 vs <16 g/d |
| Author country . | Cancer site . | OR (95% CI) . | Vegetable . | Comparison of quantity of intake . | Raw/cooked vegetables . | No. subjects . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Levi et al. (7) Switzerland | Oral and pharyngeal | 0.3 (0.16–0.58) | Raw | >8.5 vs ≤5.0 servings/wk | 156 cases, 284 controls | |
| 0.14 (0.07–0.19) | Cooked | >8.6 vs ≤5.2 servings/wk | ||||
| Franceschi et al. (8) Italy | Oral and pharyngeal | 0.4 (0.3–0.6) | Raw | >14.1 vs ≤5 servings/wk | 598 cases, 1,491 controls | |
| 0.5 (0.3–0.7) | Cooked | >4.5 vs ≤1.5 servings/wk | ||||
| De Stephani et al. (10) Uruguay | Laryngeal-male | 0.29 (0.15–0.56) | Raw | >31 vs ≤8.6 g/d | Carrot, lettuce, tomato | 148 cases, 444 controls |
| 0.96 (0.5–1.84) | Cooked | >87.7 vs ≤35.5 g/d | Onion, Swiss chard, spinach, winter squash, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper | |||
| Bosetti et al. (9) Italy and Switzerland | Laryngeal | 0.22 (0.14–0.34) | Raw | >13.9 vs ≤5.4 servings/wk | 527 cases, 1,297 controls | |
| 0.32 (0.21–0.49) | Cooked | >5.1 vs ≤1.6 servings/wk | ||||
| Bosetti et al. (18) northern Italy | Esophageal | 0.32 (0.19–0.55) | Raw | >12.6 vs ≤3.9 servings/wk | 304 cases, 743 controls | |
| 0.79 (0.47–1.31) | Cooked | >4.3 vs ≤1.4 servings/wk | ||||
| De Stefani et al. (19) Uruguay | Esophageal | 0.52 (0.27–0.99) | Raw | ≥34.4 vs ≤8 g/d | 111 cases, 444 controls | |
| 0.55 (0.29–1.03) | Cooked | ≥95.5 vs ≤36.1 g/d | ||||
| Levi et al. (20) Switzerland | Esophageal | 0.14 (0.1–0.4) | Raw | >9.5 vs ≤5.5 servings/wk | 101 cases, 327 controls | |
| 0.19 (0.1–0.3) | Cooked | >8.0 vs ≤5.3 servings/wk | ||||
| Cornee et al. (25) France | Gastric | 0.41 (0.19–0.88) | Raw | Tomato, lettuce, radish, cucumber, celery | 92 cases, 128 controls | |
| 1.06 (0.53–2.13) | Cooked | Swiss chard, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, courgette, beetroot, green beans, peas, eggplant, leek, mushrooms | ||||
| Botterweck et al. (26) the Netherlands* | Gastric | 0.81 (0.55–1.19) | Raw | Median intake 74 vs 8 g/d | 310 cases, 3,346 controls | |
| 0.79 (0.55–1.14) | Cooked | Median intake 213 vs 79 g/d | ||||
| De Stefani et al. (27) Uruguay | Gastric | 0.52 (0.31–0.86) | Raw | ≥29.5 vs ≤9.0 g/d | Carrot, lettuce, tomato | 160 cases, 320 controls |
| 0.93 (0.57–1.51) | Cooked | ≥90.0 vs ≤53.0 g/d | Onion, garlic, Swiss chard, spinach, winter squash, beetroot, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper | |||
| Kim et al. (28) Korea | Gastric | 0.55 (0.28–1.09) | Raw | 136 cases, 136 controls | ||
| 0.98 (0.50–1.90) | Cooked | |||||
| Centonze et al. (36) southern Italy | Colorectal | 0.67 (0.35–1.29) | Raw | ≥76 vs ≤46 g/d | Salad, celery, tomato, carrot | 119 cases, 119 controls |
| 0.59 (0.31–1.12) | Cooked | ≥267 vs ≤183 g/d | Vegetable soup, spinach, beet, endive, eggplant, artichoke, green pepper, zucchini, cauliflower, peas, kidney beans, runner beans | |||
| Franceschi et al. (38) Italy | Colon | 0.7 (0.7–0.8) | Raw | >12 vs ≤4.0 servings/wk | 1,225 cases, 4,154 controls | |
| 0.7 (0.6–0.8) | Cooked | >7.3 vs ≤2.9 servings/wk | ||||
| Rectal and rectosigmoid | 0.8 (0.7–1.0) | Raw | >12 vs ≤4.0 servings/wk | 728 cases, 4,154 controls | ||
| 0.7 (0.7–0.8) | Cooked | >7.3 vs ≤2.9 servings/wk | ||||
| Boutron-Ruault et al. (39) France | Colorectal | 1.0 (0.5–1.8) | Raw | 171 cases, 202 controls | ||
| 0.8 (0.4–1.5) | Cooked | |||||
| Levi et al. (40) Switzerland | Colorectal | 0.49 (0.3–0.78) | Raw | >9 vs ≤5.5 servings/wk | 223 cases, 291 controls | |
| 0.41 (0.26–0.66) | Cooked | >8.75 vs ≤5.25 servings/wk | ||||
| Voorips et al. (41) the Netherlands* | Colon-male | 0.79 (0.54–1.16) | Raw | Median intake∥ 73 vs 7 g/d | Endive, carrot, tomato, lettuce | 313 cases, 1,456 subcohort |
| 0.94 (0.64–1.39) | Cooked | Median intake 234 vs 79 g/d | Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, endive, beetroot, string beans, broad beans, kale, carrot, sweet pepper, sauerkraut, rhubarb, mushroom, gherkin | |||
| Colon-female | 1.02 (0.67–1.54) | Raw | Median intake 76 vs 10 g/d | 274 cases, 1,497 subcohort | ||
| 0.75 (0.49–1.14) | Cooked | Median intake 229 vs 80 g/d | ||||
| Rectal-male | 0.93 (0.58–1.47) | Raw | Median intake 73 vs 7 g/d | 201 cases, 1,456 subcohort | ||
| 0.96 (0.61–1.51) | Cooked | Median intake 234 vs 79 g/d | ||||
| Rectal-female | 1.24 (0.67–2.26) | Raw | Median intake 76 vs 10 g/d | 122 cases, 1,497 subcohort | ||
| 1.34 (0.74–2.42) | Cooked | Median intake 229 vs 80 g/d | ||||
| Deneo-Pellegrini et al. (42) Uruguay | Colorectal | 0.8 (0.6–1.0) | Raw | Carrot, tomato, lettuce | 484 cases, 1,452 controls | |
| 0.9 (0.7–1.2) | Cooked | Onion, Swiss chard, spinach, potato, sweet potato, winter squash, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper, kidney bean, lentil | ||||
| Mayne et al. (44) New York† | Lung-male (nonsmokers) | 0.41‡ | Raw | 212 cases, 212 controls | ||
| 1.02§ | Cooked | |||||
| Lung-female (nonsmokers) | 0.40‡ | Raw | 201 cases, 201 controls | |||
| 0.69§ | Cooked | |||||
| Voorips et al. (46) the Netherlands* | Lung | 0.7 (0.6–1.0) | Raw | Median intake 74 vs 8 g/d | Endive, carrot, lettuce, tomato | 1,010 cases, 2,953 subcohort |
| 0.8 (0.6–1.1) | Cooked | Median intake 231 vs 79 g/d | Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, endive, beetroot, string beans, broad beans, kale, carrot, sweet pepper, sauerkraut, rhubarb, mushroom, gherkin | |||
| De Stefani et al. (45) Uruguay | Lung-male | 0.97 (0.64–1.45) | Raw | Carrot, lettuce, tomato | 200 cases, 600 controls | |
| 0.50 (0.32–0.76) | Cooked | Onion, Swiss chard, spinach, winter squash, potato, sweet potato, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper, kidney bean, lentil | ||||
| Franceschi et al. (49) Italy | Breast | 0.73 (0.6–0.88) | Raw | >12.5 vs ≤4.9 servings/wk | Lettuce-like salad, carrot, tomato, mixed salad | 2,569 cases, 2,588 controls |
| 0.96 (0.79–1.16) | Cooked | >7.5 vs ≤3.1 servings/wk | Pulses, carrot, onion, artichoke, Cruciferae, spinach, zucchini, pepper, eggplant, savory pie, vegetable soup | |||
| Ronco et al. (50) Uruguay | Breast | 0.51 (0.33–0.79) | Raw | >6.5 vs <2.7 servings/wk | 400 cases, 405 controls | |
| 0.58 (0.36–0.94) | Cooked | >9.8 vs <6.3 servings/wk | ||||
| Adzersen et al. (51) Germany | Breast | 0.51 (0.31–0.84) | Raw | >65.0 vs <23.7 g/d | Mixed salads, fresh herbs, green leafy salads, tomatoes, cucumbers, red/green peppers, carrots, radishes, cabbage, sprouts | |
| 1.26 (0.77–2.06) | Cooked | >45.5 vs <18.3 g/d | Pulses, other cooked vegetables not specified | |||
| Bosetti et al. (54) Italy | Ovarian | 0.47 (0.34–0.64) | Raw | >11.5 vs ≤6.5 servings/wk | 1,031 cases, 2,411 controls | |
| 0.65 (0.48–0.87) | Cooked | >5.0 vs ≤1.8 servings/wk | ||||
| McCann et al. (53) New York | Endometrial | 0.6 (0.3–0.9) | Raw | >120 vs ≤54 times/mo | 232 cases, 639 controls | |
| 0.5 (0.3–0.8) | Cooked | >111 vs ≤61 times/mo | ||||
| Schuurman et al. (55) the Netherlands* | Prostate | 0.96 (0.68–1.32) | Raw | Median intake 73 vs 7 g/d | 704 cases, 1,688 controls | |
| 0.85 (0.61–1.19) | Cooked | Median intake 234 vs 79 g/d | ||||
| Balbi et al. (56) Uruguay | Bladder | 1.15 (0.74–1.80) | Raw | Mean intake, cases 27.9 g/d, controls 26.6 g/d | Carrot, tomato, lettuce | 144 cases, 576 controls |
| 0.53 (0.32–0.87) | Cooked | Cases 68.7 g/d, controls 58.9 g/d | Onion, Swiss chard, spinach, winter squash, cabbage, cauliflower, zucchini, red pepper | |||
| Zeegers et al. (57) the Netherlands* | Urothelial | 0.94 (0.69–1.27) | Raw | ≥193 vs <99 g/d | 619 cases, 3,346 subcohort | |
| 1.01 (0.75–1.37) | Cooked | ≥58 vs <16 g/d |